International Management Organisation vs. National Culture

Executive Summary Corporate cultures are important since they aid in streamlining the operations of organizations in a given environment. Corporate cultures are established over a long period of time and are dependent on the environment in which an organization is operating.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International Management: Organisation vs. National Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The introduction of this paper expounds on corporate culture and cross-cultural management. The second part brings out the aspects of management that characterize national cultures in London, Tokyo, and Singapore. The third part explores the issue of corporate culture and national cultures in international management. Introduction One of the most critical challenges in international management is the conflict between established corporate cultures of multinationals and the corporate cultures that prevail in different re gions where firms establish their operations (Ogunmokun Ling, 1999). This paper explores variations in regional cultures and the corporate culture of an organization originated from the United States. The regions that are touched upon in the paper are Tokyo, London, and Singapore. This paper argues that organizations make adjustments to corporate cultures as a way of adapting to corporate practices in the global business environment. Overview of corporate culture in the context of managing in the four regions Most of the aspects of dynamism in international management come from the variation of corporate cultures in this environment (Schneider Barsoux 2003). Multinational companies often establish corporate cultures that help them thrive in different markets across the globe (Oberg 2004). They often adopt a hybrid system of management which aids multinational firms to bridge the cultural gap that prevails between their corporate culture and the established corporate culture in the given region (Pagell, Katz Sheu 2005). According to the Hofstede Centre (2013), there is a close cultural relation between the United States and the UK. Both countries adopt quick reporting of organizational activities. There is also an emphasis on creativity in the discharge of organizational functions in the two countries. However, there is a wide gap between the national culture of Japan and Singapore in relation to the culture of the United States. Individual relationships are given a lot of emphasis in Japanese transactions.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Nonetheless, the uniting factor in as far as integration of the national cultures of the four countries is concerned is the preference of economic or organizational growth through application of strategy. Contrary to the Schein model, most of the attributes of culture in the regions presented in this paper are more visible and easy for the organization to adjust to the culture in London, Tokyo and Singapore. Fard, Rostamy and Taghiloo (2009) ascertain the value of understanding the attributes of national cultures by eliciting the Hofstede model of cross cultural management. According to this model, the national culture of management is established through the prevailing systems and structures of management in a given country (Berg van den Wilderom 2004). This means that multinationals often replicate their corporate cultures from the attributes of management that are embraced in the parent country (Morschett, Schramm-Klein Zentes 2010). The rooting of organizational culture in the practices of management embraced in a country makes it quite daunting for a firm to effectively deal with the variation in culture when it enters foreign environments (Jones 2007). Corporate success depends on the ability of a firm to master its operational environment and stage its operations in a way that appeals the culture that is established in the given environment (Wursten Fadrhonc, 2012). It is worth noting that corporate cultures cannot be totally exported in foreign environments (Puffer 2004). Exploring organizational corporate culture in cross-culture management Lloyd and HÃ ¤rtel (2004) observe that there is a universal embrace of human resource management across the globe. The US values a total quality culture in the management of both people and other organizational resources. This is also embraced by most of the leading economies in Europe, like the United Kingdom. The recent managerial era in Asia has also seen a shift towards the embrace of quality in human and strategic business management. This can be traced back in the early 1990s where Asian countries realized the need for promoting a quality culture as a way of increasing their competitive force as far as competing with the western quality culture is concerned (de Mooij Hofstede 2010). This factor has promoted a desir able business environment in most Asian countries like Japan and Singapore. Thus, it can be viewed that it is easy for an organization from the United States to adapt to the corporate culture that is embraced in most European countries, as well as the emergent economies in Asia.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International Management: Organisation vs. National Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The main areas that have to be given attention to is positioning of human resource as secondary or reactive, as far as the operation of a firm and the discharge of human resource practices by multinationals that operate in Asia are concerned. This contradicts the human resource culture in the United States and Europe, where human resource practices are strongly embedded in business practices (Wilcoxson Millett 2000). Firms in the United States are widely known for embracing high standards of employee management, e specially in the service sector. Therefore, it becomes easy for a service firm from the United States to adapt to the regions that are ranked lower than the United States in terms of service offering. This can also be attributed to total quality management, which is a critical factor in business positioning in the United States. Total quality culture is an aspect of management that is highly embraced in western firms (Cayla Arnould 2008). Emerging economies like Singapore have also focused on quality as they seek to exert competitive pressures on western firms that have dominated the international market scene for a long period of time (Hennig-Thurau et al. 2005). The antecedents of brand quality and preference are other critical aspects of culture, especially for the US firms that operate in the Asian region (Deleersnyder et al. 2009). Research has shown the tendency of customers in the Asian region to give preference to local brands. So, success of the firm in Singapore and Tokyo requires the company to incorporate local business attributes in its services and products (Delong et al. 2004; Fletcher n.d). Singapore, Tokyo and London present ethnically diverse regions in the world. The ethnic diversity in these regions comes from the fact that they have active and well developed business environments. Tackling the problem of expatriate management is vital towards efficiency and effectiveness of subsidiary firms and effective positioning of the company in the foreign business environment (Pires, Stanton Ostenfeld 2006; Lizardo n.d.). Conclusion Managing a United States based multinational company in Tokyo, Singapore and London requires the organization to focus on cultural variations in the region. The financial services firm in the United States focuses on service quality and strategic human resources. Managing in Singapore and Tokyo requires the organization to adjust its activities due to the tendency of customers in the region to focus on local brands. Th e score matches presented by the Hofstede centre denote that there will be a greater need to embrace cross-cultural communication for firms that will be established in Tokyo and Singapore, due to the embrace of business models that vary from those embraced in New York and London.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Reference List Berg van den, PT Wilderom, CPM 2004, ‘Defining, measuring, and comparing organisational cultures’, Applied Psychology, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 570-582. Cayla, J Arnould, EJ 2008, ‘A cultural approach to branding in the global marketplace’, Journal of International Marketing, vol. 16 Issue 4, pp. 86-112. de Mooij M Hofstede G, 2010, ‘The Hofstede model applications to global branding and advertising strategy and research’, International Journal of Advertising, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 85–110. Deleersnyder, B, Dekimpe, MG, Steenkamp, JEM Leeflang, PSH 2009, ‘The role of national culture in advertising’s sensitivity to business cycles: An investigation across continents’ Journal of Marketing Research (JMR), vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 623-636. Delong, M, Bao, M, Wu, J, Chao, H Li, M 2004, ‘Perception of US branded apparel in Shanghai’, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 8 no. 2, pp. 141-153 . Fard, HD, Rostamy, AAA, Taghiloo, H 2009, ‘How Types of Organisational cultures contribute in shaping learning organisations’, Singapore Management Review, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 49-61. Fletcher, R n.d., ‘Country of origin’ and ‘psychic distance’: Separate constructs or two sides of the one coin? Web. Hennig-Thurau, T, Gwinner, KP, Gremler, DD Paul, M 2005, ‘Managing service relationships in a global economy: exploring the impact of national culture on the relevance of customer relational benefits for gaining loyal customers’, in K. de Ruyter and P. Pauwels (ed.) Research on International Service Marketing: A state of the Art (Advances in International Marketing, volume 15), Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley, pp. 11-31. Hofstede Centre 2013, National cultural dimensions. Web. Jones, ML 2007, Hofstede- Culturally questionable?, Oxford Business Economics Conference, Oxford. Lizardo, O n.d., Globalization and culture: A soci ological perspective. Web. Lloyd, SLL HÃ ¤rtel, CEJ 2004, ‘Predicting IHRM strategy and practice decisions: development of the IHRM orientation typology’, Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, vol. 11 no. 4, pp. 60-76. Morschett, D, Schramm-Klein, H, Zentes, J 2010, Strategic international management: Text and cases, Gabler, Wiesbaden. Oberg, K 2004, ‘Culture shock and the problem of adjustment to new cultural environments’, Worldwide Classroom. Web. Ogunmokun, GO, Ling, YL 1999, ‘Globalization versus adaptation strategy in international marketing: A study of exporting companies in the People’s Republic of China’, AAM Journal, vol. 4, no 2, pp. 24-41. Pagell, M, Katz, J Sheu, C 2005, ‘The importance of national culture in operations management research’, International Journal of Operations Production Management, vol. 25 no.3/4, pp. 371-94. Pires, G, Stanton, J Ostenfeld, S 2006, ‘Improving expatri ate adjustment and effectiveness in ethnically diverse countries: marketing insights’, Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, vol. 13 no. 2, pp. 156-170. Puffer, SM 2004, International management: Insights from fiction and practise, M.E. Sharpe, New York, NY. Schneider, S Barsoux, J 2003, Managing across cultures, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Harlow. Wilcoxson L Millett B 2000, ‘The management of organisational culture’, Australian Journal of Management Organisational Behaviour, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 91-99. Wursten, H Fadrhonc, T 2012, International marketing and culture. Web. This essay on International Management: Organisation vs. National Culture was written and submitted by user Cain Bradford to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Ict and Socia Media in Tourism Essays

Ict and Socia Media in Tourism Essays Ict and Socia Media in Tourism Essay Ict and Socia Media in Tourism Essay Topic: Evaluate the effects (positive and negative) of user generated data on tourism decision making. The tourism industry is a rapidly thriving industry that accounts as the main source of revenue for many regions worldwide. As the industry grows, more and more attention is being paid to the use of user generated data to enhance the decision making process in a tourism perspective. The use of user generated data in a tourism discipline is somewhat interesting as many organizations utilise user generated data for a vvariety of motives, however the central focus being for decision making. In the ollowing paragraphs, an evaluation of both the positive and negative impacts of user generated data on decision making will be addressed with particular consideration to the tourism industry and a take on social media influences. User generated data encompasses a different vvariety of media content in the scope of modern communications technology that is used in a series of applications (Ayeh, Au, Law, 2013). User generated data is also gathered via ddigital media technologies and open source free software. Nevertheless, research by Hvass and Munar (2012) suggest that in the last decade there has seen a huge shift in user generated data nd content towards an interest in social media. Social media is now more than ever a vital marketing tool for tourism operators as it acts as a gateway for tourism organizations to interact directly with consumers via internet. Due to the fact that technology is a rising and fundamental resource today with more people gaining access to the internet through technology devices, it is reasonable that social media have been adopted by consumers to seek recommendations and references of tourism based products and services. The greatest benefit of user generated data xtracted by tourism organizations is the for the primary use of conducting and creating tourism products and services based on user generated data (Law, Leung, Buhalts, 2009). Big data is a valuable asset to any organization within the tourism industry as well as outside of tourism based operators. As study (Ye, Law, Gu, Chen, 2011) indicates, each individual will generate an immense amount of data each day over communication and interaction to the extent that the information generated becomes useful and even sometimes beneficial to businesspersons especially to the tourism industry, with regards to decision making. This great deal of data is also referred to as user generated data in the sense that each individual is a user whom generates data eltner Tor a speclTlc purpose or Vla stanaara communlcatea information. Furthermore a positive impact of user generated data on tourism decision making is the fact that the huge amount of personal data is used to improve on services and enhance product for consumers. In addition to this, user generated data is unique for creating opportunities for visitors to produce memorable tourism experiences, involving other tourism businesses to build significant destination mages and better engagement with social media. However, other study (Law Xiang, 2013) too shows that big data can also be regarded as a liability for many tourism organizations. User generated data at most times can be counted as misleading and untruthful data that can be time consuming and costly for many tourism operators. Thus the importance of tourism based operators to take into consideration the level of accuracy of user generated data and whether or not the data gathered is relevant to the subject of matter. Social media is a suitable example of this as many people tend to generate data via the internet. As mentioned previously, social media is a major case in point of user generated data whereby the bulk of tourists seek for suggestions and ideas through social networks such as facebook, twitter, or travel websites that include expedia, trip advisor and many more (Leung, Law, van Hoof, Buhalis, 2013). Besides this, other study by Hudson and Thal (2013) imply that social media is used as a strategic approach for tourism operators and in the last decade there has seen a dramatic change of consumer preferences and decision process of engaging in tourism products and services due to social media information. Hudson and Thal (2013) further point out the benefits tourism marketers are gaining in social media engagement and the costs that come with it. To illustrate, additional research (Tham, Croy, Mair, 2013) suggest that social media spreads word of mouth automatically. This is drawn from users attempting to make public all the wholesome and poor experiences an individual consumes with a product service or at a destination. Despite this, the study concludes with the fact that word of mouth can get the worse of tourism operators whom primarily seek the development of roducts and services mainly though social media and user generated data which possibly will result in an inadequate expansion. To conclude, user generated data like any other source of information, contains both its benefits and costs to any tourism organization and its decision making process. The matter of the fact is, it depends on the liability of the data consumed that could possibly make or break a tourism operator.

DQ 10 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

DQ 10 - Essay Example Procrastination simply refers putting things off to another time. Instead of someone doing what they know they are able to do at the moment, they prefer to leave it for another day. This leads to slow changes in our lives hence lack of personal development. Poor time management is another leading factor that inhibits proper personal growth and development. A person who is unable to manage his time is also a poor planner. Both time wastage and lack of planning means that a person has a schedule does not know how to manage his time. Disorganization and lack of goals also contributes to poor personal development as one has no specific goals that drive him. The lack of discipline to achieve the goals that a person has set for himself or those set at the work place leaves a person stuck in one place hence poor personal growth. As a professional journalist, I have learnt that it is important to conduct myself in a professional manner at all times. First, I have adapted the skill of always been up to date with the changing technology that is used to gather and disseminate information. Through this, I am sure that I will be up to date with the current events, not only in my country but also in the world. This also puts me in a better position to disseminate the information I have gathered to the people who need urgently. I have also acquired the art of confidentiality, especially when it comes to interviews. Most people do not wish to be known publicly yet they still give me very helpful information. For this reason, I have learned to maintain their anonymity at all costs. Professionally, I am able to relate to my colleagues without getting too personal or creating unnecessary conflicts amongst us. To improve my proficiencies, I know I can always refer to my bosses for help whenever the need arises. My colleagues are also in a position to help me in case i ask for their advice. I can also use the internet to improve my

International financial management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International financial management - Essay Example Forward contracts can be traded on recognized markets, whilst futures contracts can not Ans-9) (a). Enter into a 90-day forward contract to sell US Dollars for Euros Ans-10) (e). Insufficient data given to enable the calculation to be made Section B Q1 a) The political risk refers to the scenario where the economic yield would be influenced and undergoes due to the uncertain changes in political environment that cause volatility in the state (MCKELLAR, Robert, 2012, pp. 36). Any uncertain circumstances directly impact the investment returns that could be ranging from switching the governments, change in regulation bodies, amendments in foreign policy or military state of affairs (OVERHOLT, William H., 1982, pp.74 ). It is a common consensus that political risk cannot be measured but it can be assessed. This particular statement is quite right as political risk cannot be measured, because there is no method or tool available from which one can assess the level and proportion of risk f ound under political uncertainty (BRINK, Charlotte H, 2004,pp. 152). Political uncertainty has a definite has a definite effect over the long and short term strategy of the companies as a whole and this particular component is quite essential for the companies as far as generating net income is concerned (HOWELL, Llewellyn D., 2002, pp. 84). Number of time, it has been assessed that political problem is like to initiate soon but there is no tool which could be used in the assessment of the same. If we talk about United States of America (USA), then it is found that the internal politics of the company is quite safe and the proportion of any sort of political risk is quite minimal, while the external threats are quite high like the War on Terror (WOT) and the terrorist attack like 9/11 (THEODORE HARVEY MORAN, Gerald Thomas West, 2005, pp. 142). Analysts, even the individuals assessed this particular problem in total, but this particular problem cannot be measured quantifiably because of unavailability of any sophisticated method and tool of the same (HARMS, Philipp, 2000, pp. 186). b) Political risk can also be referred as â€Å"geopolitical risk† a factor, because of the longer the time span of the investment. On account of the inadequate sample size or case study in order to confer the political risks of the individual countries is disreputably difficult to enumerate (HANS SIEGWART, Ivo G. Caytas, Julian I. Mahari, 1989, pp. 69). Hardly any of the political risk could be indemnified alongside by means of international institutions or other government agencies. As a result of political risks may directly have an effect on return on investment, and also restricted to eliminate the withdrawal of funds from investment capacity (O'LEARY, Michael Kent, 2004, pp. 37). Alternatively to this, there are many anti political risk strategies which are being considered to minimize the explicit threats and by implementing these strategies will cause greatly to meet t he expectation and demands of overseas projects, find management and different contracts (WAGNER, Daniel, 1999, pp. 102). There are number of forms of political risk that could affect over the productivity of a company

Vietnams Declaration of Independence Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Vietnams Declaration of Independence - Case Study Example April 27, Captain Patti requested Ho Chi Minh to allow the OSS team work with the Annamites with the intention of gathering intelligence on the Japanese. Ho agreed to the Captain’s request and set up a camp in the jungle that would later be Viet Minh’s headquarters. It is worth noting that all requests made to Ho by the United States, he agreed to. In his DoI speech, Chi Minh used the second paragraph of America’s 1776 Declaration of Independence to assert his point. He states that Vietnam’s wish to be a sovereign nation is in agreement with the principles of humanity and equality. He further states that all Vietnamese, like any other sovereign citizens, have a right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. According to Ho, this statement means that all men, irrespective of any differences, have a are all born equal at birth and that freedom cannot be taken away, meaning the rights at from birth are inalienable. In emphasizing these principles, Ho st ates that the same principles were used by the United States in the 1776 Declaration of Independence. Ho goes on to point out that the same principles were the foundation of the 1791 Declaration of the French Revolution on the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The French declaration mainly states that all men are born free, have equal rights, and must at all times be free with equal rights. If these principles were reasserted in the Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of French Revolution, then they should be applied to Vietnam’s Declaration of Independence as well.

Political Structure Of The Roman Empire Theology Essay

Political Structure Of The Roman Empire Theology Essay The public sphere of Rome, which included religious norms, social settings, as well as some other cultural divides, has been known to greatly affect the Roman political system throughout, from its inception to its fall. Our world has seen many great empires and perhaps the most popular one by name is the Roman Empire. A great number of books have been written on this subject, many movies have been made, and the Roman Empire remains rich in our minds to this date. The Roman history involves some great moments as it recounts such great leaders as Julius Caesar (see Picture 1), the birth of Christ and his exploits, and then the setting up of the Church and the Vatican by Constantine. Just like any other state or empire, the Roman Empire was also much affected by the people that were its subjects. These people had their own religion throughout the various epochs of the Empire, and these people had their own norms and practices. The Roman citizen was instantly recognized by his toga (See Illustration 1) and the Roman army by his uniform (See Picture 2) The political structure of the Roman Empire was affected by the way that its citizens had behaved during the various times, including their religion, their social structure, gender relations and economics. This paper shall follow the course of the Roman Empire through history, from its inception to its decline and fall and relate how the various factors were able to influence the Empire in different ways. It is also important to realize that the Roman public was able to influence the political structure of the Roman Empire. The culture of the Roman Empire was influenced by many factors. The Roman Senate declared Augustus (See Picture 3) as the Emperor of Rome in 27BC. This was the beginning of the Roman Empire that was destined to last for the next five hundred years, adding more and more territories to its name. The diversity in the Roman Empire came because of the number of regions that it was able to incorporate into its boundaries. The Roman Empire included ancient Britain, Arabia, and Romania. Augustus was a good ruler and he was able to stabilize Rome both politically as well as socially. A lot of development in the areas of art, literature, and philosophy took place in the Roman Empire, as it continuously borrowed from various civilizations and cultures. Among the most important of things that came out of the Roman Empire include the religious and ethical elements of Judaism, the teachings of Christianity, the study of astronomy and astrology, and so much more information from other Eastern count ries like Persia and Egypt. This spread of information gave power to the Roman politics since they were able to use this knowledge to introduce new reforms in their political structure, as well as add some mystery to it. The Romans left such a mark of their culture on the world that people and artists, centuries later, such as Michelangelo in the 16th century A.D, This is how the Roman culture was able to spread its architecture and literature all over Europe, and we can still find their elements in various Western traditions today. One of the areas where we see the most of Roman influence is that of mathematics. Many of the theories and principles that are employed in mathematics have been the product of Greek/Roman minds such as Archimedes and Pythagoras. Their ideas have formed the basis of what we call geometry. Many innovations and inventions have been made based on these ideas and hence we see a large influence of Roman mentality in things like weapons and architecture. Much of theoretical as well as practical science has also been laid down by the Romans. They established the field of botany and many of the early Roman scientists worked to collect a horde of information about many of the plants that existed in the region. Aristotle and his Theophrastus (often referred to as the father of botany) classified and named these plants. Although no apparent connection exists between the advancement in mathematics and the political structure, we find that as more and more mathematical concepts were introduced and adopted in Rome, the politicians also were able to adopt their versatility. One of the concepts that arose out of mathematics was economics and the Romans were able to carry out trade on a better level. This gave a boost to the Roman Empire and the politicians were able to use mathematics to their advantage. Many of the ideas of economics and politics that the Western world follows toady have also been derived from Ancient Romans. The Romans system of the senate is still employed by many Western countries today. In addition, the Romans were the first ones to introduce the ideas of interest in business and loans and we all know that the whole economic arena of the world today works on the principles of interest. Many of the Greek/Roman philosophers, such as Aristotle and Socrates, also played their role in Roman influence and we see that many Western countries have their contemporaries who are always building upon the original ideas and concepts. The Roman influence on art is phenomenal. We find that many of the artists of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment era used to follow the art techniques of the Romans. Many of the sculptures and murals painted by Michelangelo (See Illustration 2) are evidence of the fact that he was motivated and inspired by Roman art. These theories, aspiration s, and ideas were passed from the Greeks to the Romans and then to other nations in Western Europe. The most comprehensive aspect of the social life and the Empire that the Romans were able to develop and spread to the rest of Europe includes the details of the Roman Law. The Romans were able to take the basic framework provided by the Greeks and transform it into an extremely sophisticated and scientific legal system. The history of Roman law spans almost a thousand years from the law of the twelve tables (449 BC) to Justinians codes (aroung 530 BC). The twelve tables still reflect a relatively primitive and pre-scientific legal system. However, from the 2nd century B.C, the Romans began to apply the methods and categories of Greek philosophy to legal problems (which the Greeks themselves had never thought of). A legal profession began to emerge and the production of scholarly treaties on Roman law started. It was in the second century AD that the Roman legal science was able to reach its peak. This happened when the economic and political conditions of the principate became favor able to the scholarly activity of Roman jurists. However, this classical age of the Roman jurists ended in the 3rd century and no one has been adequately able to explain that. The following centuries saw a general decline of Roman legal culture, which was not stopped by the efforts of emperor Justinian to revive classical Roman law in the 6th century. Justinian did manage, however, to preserve a great part of the literary legacy of the classical jurists by incorporating their writings in his codes. The Digest, which is the most important part of the codification and was published in 533, is a gigantic collection of fragments from classical text books and commentaries. While it was unknown in Western Europe in the early middle ages, it was rediscovered around 1070 in Italy. From that time onward, Roman law and especially the teachings of the classical jurists preserved in the Digest became the basis of continental European. It has been said quite rightly, that the Digest is one of the most influential books in European . Perhaps the most important aspect of the Roman culture that was able to affect the political structure the most was religion. Rome had grown up to be a formidable empire by 120 AD (See Map). The history of Rome is embedded with wonder. Much of what Rome was to become in the later stages of its life was due to the ancient yet colorful religion, one that is now known as Roman mythology. The Romans had gods and goddesses for every element, and for every occasion. These gods were in a continuous state of tension, balancing the good and evil, while keeping the humans happy as well. It is in this religion that we find the basic impetus for the Roman Empire, its political structure, and its social environment. Perhaps Ovid was best able to present this relationship between the gods and humans in his Metamorphoses. The first story of a human involves a sinner, punished for his offence against the gods. Lycaons case represents one example of the wickedness of all humanity in the Iron Age. Lyc aon (wolf man in Greek) is the reason for the flood, Jupiter explains, but not the origin of evil (Ovid does not mention the famous story of Pandoras box). Lycaons metamorphosis into a beast reveals his true nature; the description translates literally, his mouth gathered savagery from the man himself. The reaction of the other gods to Jupiters punishment of Lycaon resembles a senate of yes-men; at first it sounds as if the gods feel pity for humanity, but soon their selfish motives are revealed: without men they will lose their sacrifices. Jupiter claims that he wants to make the world safe for lesser divinities, nymphs, fauns, satyrs, but as we will soon see in the stories to follow, the biggest threat to pretty young nymphs are the amorous gods themselves After the ancient religions in Rome, came the slightly modern ideas that pertain to cynicism and stoicism. One of the most famous of the Stoics was Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (See Picture 4). His whole political system was dictated by the Stoic way of life as he was in favor of the human being devoid of all emotions, where things like envy, fear, etc were all thought to have come out of false judgments of the human minds. The focus of much of Aureliuss philosophy had to do with the ethics that were involved in the Stoic way of life. These ethics involved the four basic virtues of wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. Aurelius was also an advocate of going through continuous meditation and exercises in order to keep the mind and the body in a state of togetherness. In Meditations, Book II, part 1, Aurelius writes: Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of these things have come upon them through ignorance of real good and ill I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together This is not just him making a statement; rather it is giving the reader a practical technique of reminding oneself every day, repeatedly, of the problems that the person might face, and how they can be solved. This is somewhat reminiscence of what later became to be known as the self-fulfilling prophecy. This Stoic way of life was greatly reflected in Aurelius political structuring of Rome. But perhaps the one religion that had the most impact on the Roman empire and its political structuring is Christianity. The fall of the Roman Empire brought about a rise of Christianity and the Christian Church and this affected many changes in the view of the world. Some of the rulers of Christianity, like Saint Augustine (354-430 AD), upheld that the Bible should be considered the only legitimate source of information about important questions and this led to a great devotion to the Bible as the main source of intellectual reserve for the Western civilization for many years to come. Many of the Christians fell into the dark ages right after the fall of the Roman empire as well and only a few found salvation in the religion. The evolution of the Christian church in terms of contributions by various rulers are discussed herein. Constantine I (See Picture 5) was one who helped contribute a lot to the rise of the Christian church as he was one of the most advantageous advocates of the Orthodox Church. He was a Roman emperor who legalized Christianity and founded Constantinople, and by doing so he single handedly laid the foundations of the Greco-Christian Empire of Byzantium. He adopted Christianity as the religion of his state and gave freedom to the priests and bishops to practice Christianity without bounds. Another emperor who was instrumental in the expansion and vital to the race of Christianity was Theodosios I (born 347 AD). In 380, he proclaimed Christianity as the official religion of the state. He also convened the second Ecumenical Council and finalized the Articles of Faith. As with these two aforementioned Emperors, there was many who ruled Byzantine and helped it progress in terms prospective growth as well as religious development of Christianity. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Christianity saw a divide into the East and the West sections due to the vast land distances that the religion covered. There was hardly even any contact between the Christians of the East and the Christians of the West because of the great geographical distances between them. They did, however, remain to be the same religion, and were only kept apart in their cultural and historical upbringing by imaginary lines of directions. Thus were born many different independent and self-governing churches that answered to either the Western or the Eastern Orthodox Church. All these churches were in contact with each other and were bind together by the canon law and followed the same traditions, literature, ecclesiastical calendar, and customs. The Roman Empire remained a powerful one for more than 300 years, but it also met its doom when it disintegrated into two parts, the Western and the Eastern empire. No one is quite sure exactly when the division occurred but everyone agrees that it was a gradual transformation. It all started because of power struggles between the rulers of the area. There were many times in the history of Rome when the rulers were undecided as to the determination of successors to their thrones. After 330 A.D, Rome was often engaged in civil wars between martials, all of whom wanted to be the rulers of Rome. The Roman economy aslo played a vital role in its division. Eastern Rome found better uses for its slaves and there was a change in the social and economical system of that region. The Eastern part of the empire developed a different political system, one that resembled the fuedal system of today, and this gave a boost to their economy. The Western part, however, stuck to conventional norms and soon their middle class disappeared in the wake of excessive taxing and the Western Roman Empire fell. Since Byzantine was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, the region came to be known as the Byzantine Empire. The Eastern Empire survived because it had a more developed urban culture and it was not invaded as much as the Western one was. Since the Byzantine Empire had been a part of the grander Roman Empire, it retained much of the Roman laws and its heritage, although the legal code was updated. The official langiage of the region remained as Latin in the beginning and was changed to Greek later on. Many new churches, including the famous Church of Agia Sofia (Holy Wisdom), were also contructed. Some of Byzantiums contribution to Western Europe include great works of literature and art, a framework for an extremely efficient and highly centralized administration, and trading norms and regulations. Perhaps the biggest contribution comes out of the setup of the Orthodox Church that defined the cultural, political, social, and religios life of the region and its people for many a years to come. The Orthodox Church originated with Christ himself and can be said to be as old as Christianity itself. The Orthodox Church is geographically considered to be an Eastern Church because it is basically a creation Middle Eastern, Hellenic, and Slavic history and culture. Most of the growth and progress of the Orthodox Church, whether it is historical or spiritual, has been done on its own, almost entirely with segregation from Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The divide between the two parts, the East and the West, cannot be easily identified, but this divide occurred mostly in the 11th and 12th centuries. There was hardly even any contact between the Christians of the East and the Christians of the West before this and because of the far greater distances of those, these two, however same religions, were kept apart in their cultural and historical upbringing by imaginary lines of directions. There are many different independent and self-governing churches that answer to the Easter n Orthodox Church. All these churches are always in contact with each other and are bind together by the canon law The Orthodox Churchs administration was directed over managing the people around the land, people, which were known as a community. There were many such communities all over the ancient Russian and Greek regions of the land and each city of the era had a community that served the Orthodox Church. The highest rank amongst the governors of these communities was the bishop, who was assisted in his duties by priests (or presbyters) and deacons. The idea of martyrdom was common to the people of the Orthodox Church as it attracted much persecution from the other forms of governments that were in operation in those times. The administrative ideas about holding a council were always very important to the Orthodox Church and they believed that the council was the only able body to administer the laws and rules of the Church unto the people of the area. These councils were setup so that any problem that could not be solved by one person alone was put to the vote and many able heads were put together to work out the will of God on the problematic issue. The first council was converged in Jerusalem and it was convened so that the Apostles could come to a decision upon a serious issue. Many different types of council were setup, local ones and the famous Apostolic Council. It was only in the fourth century, when an Emperor of Constantine embraced Christianity that the Christian Empire was founded. Another important aspect of religion that greatly affected the Roman Empire were the Seven Ecumenical Councils. The Seven Ecumenical Councils were the most important councils of the Orthodox Church. The first one was convened in Nicea in 325 A.D. By Constantine the great and the last one again in Nicea in 787 A.D. The main topics that the Councils addressed were mostly on the nature of Jesus advent on Earth. The first Council was very sure in its decision and it described the nature of Christ as being the same as of God Himself. The Father and Son image of God Jesus was discussed in the second Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople in 381 A.D and it decreed the Trinitarian ideology that there were three states of God: Father, Son and Spirit. The Macedonians were condemned as heretics in this second Council. The third Ecumenical Council was held in Ephesus in 431 A.D. Nestorians were deemed as heretics and Jesus was proclaimed to be both complete God and complete man in one person and thus Mary became theotokos, or God Bearer because she gave birth to both God and Man. The Third Council also declared that both the parts of the Creed were final and complete. The Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Councils were all on the debate of whether the Christ was God or man and all of them declared him as being both occurring in the same form. There were some ideas by the Monophysites and the Monoethlites that Jesus humanity dissolved in the presence of his divinity. So Jesus was only divine. There was vehement condemnation of this theory and all the Councils announced that Jesus is complete God and complete man. There was an intermediate council between the Sixth and Seventh one and it was called the Qinisext Council (Trullo) and was held in Constantinople 692 A.D. This council was held for the completion of the fifth and sixth one and it was held for purely administrative reasons from where the canons were ratified. The seventh Ecumenical Council was held in Nicea in 787 A.D and is also called The Sunday of Orthodoxy. The main debate of this council was what to do with all the images of God and Jesus. So, we find that just like any other political regime is affected by the way that the people orient themselves in it, so was the Roman Empire affected by the various cultural and social aspects of its citizens. And as it is with most of the states, we also find that religion had the biggest part to play in determining the political structure of the Roman Empire. This religious intervention had been instilled in the Roman culture and politics ever since the prehistoric times, where the ancient religions governed the way that the emperors would rule the empire. These religious undertones were also responsible in setting up the social structure of Rome, as it differentiated between the men of different classes. The elites in Rome enjoyed a privileged class where they were free to engage in artistic and intellectual ways of life. Some of the Romans, those who could afford to, would import slaves from distant land and would flaunt them as being more talented than the average Roman slave. This sophistication of the Roman citizens allowed for many other innovations in the social, and hence, the political system of Rome. It was required to make special laws for the foreigner and the slaves, and the elites also enjoyed some special rights. No slaves were allowed to enter the government, while it was the elites birth right to be a Senator. Thus, the more sophisticated the Romans became, so did their political structure. The reason for the public sphere being so much effective in influencing the political realm in the Roman Empire is because it was a very sophisticated empire. We tend to think of those times as being the ancient ages, yet the Romans were very ahead of their time and they were able to live a life that was essentially very different from those people who lived all over the rest of the world. The Romans had confidence, they had ability, and they had their pride, all of which made them into a culturally and socially strong nation. This strength of their nation was also reflected in their political sphere as their citizens were very closely tied up to the government (the senate was elected democratically from the common citizens). Thus the public sphere was greatly able to affect the political structure of Rome, as discussed above in this paper. Picture 1 Julius Caesar, perhaps the most famous Roman of them all Illustration 1 The Roman toga: dress sharp to be a politician Picture 2 The gladiators suit, a soldiers uniform Picture 3 Augustus, the first Roman Emperor Illustration 2 Michelangelos Ceiling of the Sistine Vault Map The Romans had conquered most of Europe by 120 A.D. Picture 4 Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Picture 5 Constantine I, the Christian Roman Work Cited Aurelius, Marcus, Meditations Book II, Part 1, London: Modern Library, 2003 Ovid, Allen Mandelbaum, The Metamorphoses of Ovid, New York: Harvest Books, 1995 MacMullen, Ramsay, Romanization in the Time of Augustus, Yale University Press, 2000. Veynw, Paul, editor, A History of Private Life: I From Pagan Rome to Byzantium Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992 Wikipedia, Culture of Ancient Rome, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_culture (Accessed November 28, 2005) Pictures and Maps Portrait Gallery, Online, http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/laterep-gallery-index.html (November 21, 2005) Reenactment Event at Corbridge, Online, http://www.cavazzi.com/roman-empire/diverse/reenactment-corbridge-2002.html (November 21, 2005) Rome: Map of the Empire, Online, http://intranet.dalton.org/groups/Rome/RMap.html (November 20, 2005) Wikipedia, Caesar Augustus, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus (November 21, 2005) Wikipedia, Constantine I, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I_%28emperor%29 (November 22, 2005) Wikipedia, Marcus Aurelius, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius (November 22, 2005) Wikipedia, Roman Culture, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Toga1.png (November 21, 2005) Web Gallery of Art, Frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, Online, http://gallery.euroweb.hu/art/m/michelan/3sistina/1chapel.jpg (November 22, 2005)

Adam Smith Biography :: essays research papers

Adam Smith was born on July 5, 1723 in Kirkcaldy, Scotland. At the age of fourteen, Smith entered the University of Glasgow, where he studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here Smith developed his strong passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740 he was awarded the Snell Exhibition and entered Balliol College, Oxford. In 1746 Smith left Oxford. In 1748 Smith began delivering public lectures in Edinburgh under the patronage of the Lord Kames. In 1751 Smith Was appointed the Chair of Logic at University of Glasgow, the next year he was appointed the Chair of Moral Philosophy, which was the position of his old teacher Francis Hutcheson. In 1759 he published The Theory of Moral Sentiments, it was embodied several of his lectures from his roles at Glasgow. In 1762 the academic senate of the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). Smith subsequently resigned from his professorship and from 1764-66 traveled with his pupil , mostly in France. On returning home to Kirkcaldy Smith was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus. The Wealth of Nations was published on March 9, 1776. It was written for the average educated individual of the 18th century rather than for specialists and mathematicians. There are three main concepts that Adam Smith expands upon in this work that forms the foundation of free market economics: division of labour, pursuit of self interest, and freedom of trade. As for Smith?s characteristics and personal views, not much is known beyond what can be deduced from his published works. Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts.